Recent Papers on Governance and Policy

Content Table

Groundwater governance and the Law of the Hidden Sea

Water Policy Vol 11 No 6 pp 742–762 © IWA Publishing 2009 doi:10.2166/wp.2009.021

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Elena Lopez-Gunna and W. Todd Jarvisb

aCorresponding author. FMB-Water Observatory and Senior Visiting Fellow, London School of Economics and Political Science, London WC2 2AE, UK. Fax:+34 913944845 E-mail: e.lopez-gunn@lse.ac.uk
bInstitute for Water and Watersheds, Oregon State University, Corvallis Oregon, 97331, USA

Abstract

The paper offers an alternative interdisciplinary approach to dealing with the complexity associated with groundwater resources, providing a new angle that integrates deep groundwater systems as defined by hydro-geologists with a paradigm shift in natural resource governance, developed by political scientists. It questions the piecemeal approach to governance of groundwater resources, coupled with the lack of acknowledgment regarding the hydraulic connection of vast deep aquifers—or a hidden sea of groundwater. Rather than relying on traditional approaches to groundwater governance, which treat the resource like a mineral resource underlying the boundaries of a sovereign nation, the “post-sovereignty” and “multi-level” governance model proposed here for groundwater resources acknowledges that groundwater is hydraulically connected to the ocean and is equally complex with respect to predictive modeling. Existing legal instruments associated with the ocean that fall under the global “contract” of the UNCLOS, together with ongoing efforts to develop a legal instrument for transboundary aquifers, offer useful lessons. The paper concludes that a “world water contract” or Law of the Hidden Sea could be adapted to incorporate groundwater as a global common, deep aquifers that are not in direct hydraulic connection with surface water resources and that are part of the developing common heritage of mankind.

Poverty reduction and water governance: lessons from and problems in Northwestern China

Water Policy Vol 11 No 6 pp 645–660 © IWA Publishing 2009 doi:10.2166/wp.2009.240

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Desheng Hu

School of Law, Xi'an Jiaotong University, 28 Xianning West Road, 710049, Xi'an Shaanxi, China Fax: 0086-29-82665824 E-mail: deshenghu@hotmail.com

Abstract

Great achievements have been made in poverty reduction in Northwestern China, an area which contains a higher than average proportion of 55 different ethnic minority groups, with over half of the villagers being self-supporting, and where the main factors leading to poverty are adverse natural conditions, shortage of available water, weak infrastructure and backward social development. By analyzing the institutional framework relating to the water sector and the meeting of different water requirements (i.e., the human right to water, the environmental right to water, and economic development), as well as presenting case studies on two model villages and two kinds of important water infrastructures (i.e., the water split and silt dam), the role of good water governance in China's development-oriented poverty reduction process is identified, with particular focus on lessons that can be learned. In conclusion, lessons are drawn from the aspects of policy and management, balancing different and competitive water requirements as well as short-term and long-term benefits of the poor, and stakeholder participation.

A trialogue model for ecosystem governance

Water Policy Vol 9 No S2 pp 11–18 © CSIR 2007 doi:10.2166/wp.2007.130

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J. Hattingh, G. A. Maree, P. J. Ashton, J. J. Leaner and A. R. Turton

CSIR: Natural Resources and the Environment, PO Box 395, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa E-mail: hanlie@bluedust.co.za

Abstract

The International Symposium on Ecosystem Governance held in South Africa during 2005 enabled scientists from several disciplines to debate issues relating to governance. The symposium provided an opportunity to explore the concept of governance, particularly as it relates to ecosystem governance, by interrogating the concepts of a Trialogue Model; and helped to develop a set of pointers for research on ecosystem governance that could stimulate future cooperation.

The working hypothesis is that the Trialogue Model consists of six essential elements, and that successful governance—i.e. good governance—depends on the balance that is achieved between these elements.

The key issues relating to ecosystem governance are presented in this special edition of Water Policy. Each paper interrogates the Trialogue Model, while the pointers for research on ecosystem governance provide a useful way forward for the implementation of government tools. The Trialogue Model of governance provides a simple conceptual construct that directs discussion about current governance processes and structures at different scales. This introductory paper provides an overview of the papers in this special edition, and outlines the set of proposals for research on ecosystem governance.

Introduction to ecosystem governance: focusing on Africa

Water Policy Vol 9 No S2 pp 5–10 © IWA Publishing 2007 doi:10.2166/wp.2007.047

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J. Hattingh*, G. A. Maree, P. J. Ashton, J. J. Leaner, J. Rascher and A. R. Turton

*Corresponding Author. CSIR, Natural Resources and the Environment Unit, PO Box 395, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa E-mail: hanlie@bluedust.co.za

Abstract

The last two decades have been marked by a dramatic increase in global attention to the concept of governance, especially in relation to the effective and sustainable management of natural resources. Furthermore, South Africa has been through a rapid transition to democracy since 1994 with significant changes in government, society and within the legislative environment. Despite the highly desirable attributes of these landmark pieces of legislation, almost a decade after their promulgation South African government authorities are still struggling to implement the requirements of these Acts. An investigation by the South African CSIR into the reasons for the non-implementation indicated that an incomplete understanding of the importance of governance was a central reason for the lack of successful implementation and that the concept of “governance” had not really been fully defined or explored. Countries and regions differed in their understanding and interpretation of “governance”, whilst equally wide differences were recorded in countries that had different levels of socio-economic and political development. In an effort to unpack the so-called “black box” of governance, a group of international specialists were invited to review governance issues related to their areas of technical specialization, covering different levels of development and maturity of democracy. Each specialist was challenged to interrogate a new “Trialogue” hypothesis on governance. A selection of the manuscripts is published in this special edition of Water Policy entitled Ecosystem Governance in Africa.

Water governance, resilience and global environmental change – a reassessment of integrated water resources management (IWRM)

Water Science & Technology Vol 56 No 4 pp 1–9 © IWA Publishing 2007 doi:10.2166/wst.2007.530

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V. Galaz

Stockholm Resilience Centre, Stockholm University, SE 106 91, Stockholm, Sweden (E-mail: victor.galaz@ctm.su.se)

Abstract

Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) is gaining increased acceptance among water policy makers and researchers as a way to create more effective governance institutions, leading towards integrated water development solutions for poverty alleviation, while addressing social, economic and environmental aspects of water challenges. However, global environmental change poses fundamental challenges to water policy makers as it implies vast scientific, and hence, policy uncertainty; its implications for international water governance initiatives remain unspecified, effectively hindering dialogue on how current IWRM initiatives should be modified. This paper addresses the lag between our growing understanding of resilient interconnected freshwater resources (and their governance) and the reforms being promoted by policy makers. In particular, there is a need to rethink some of IWRM's key components to better tackle the challenges posed by the complex behaviour of interconnected social-ecological systems and global environmental change.

Water resources and environmental management: issues, challenges, opportunities and options

Water Science & Technology: Water Supply Vol 7 No 2 pp 1–10 © IWA Publishing 2007 doi:10.2166/ws.2007.035

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D.P. Loucks

School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA (E-mail: DPL3@cornell.edu)

Abstract

Managing water in an integrated and sustainable manner is currently challenging water resource managers throughout the world. It requires professionals from many disciplines working together with impacted stakeholders in crafting a strategy that is economically efficient, ecologically sound, and acceptable to all who are impacted by how this resource is managed over space and time. Such strategies can not be formed from the top down. However those at the top levels of government must be involved in facilitating a bottom–up, public participatory process of helping all those who are impacted by how water is allocated and managed achieve a shared vision of how their water resource system functions. This shared vision should include the economical, ecological and social impacts of alternative management policies, and the tradeoffs among conflicting multiple purposes for which water serves and among all economic, environmental and social objectives for which water can achieve. Appropriate technology is continually being developed that helps us manage water better, but it appears the real constraints to more effective management are often institutional or social. This paper attempts to outline some of the current water resources and environmental management issues and concerns, and suggests some ways of addressing them.

PPP – policies, practices and problems in Ghana's urban water supply

Water Policy Vol 9 No 2 pp 169–192 © IWA Publishing 2007 doi:10.2166/wp.2007.060

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Veronika Fuesta and Stefan A. Haffnerb

aCorresponding author. Max Planck Institute for Social Anthropology, Advokatenweg, 36, 06114, Halle/Saale Germany Tel: +49-(0)345-2927 124fuest@eth.mpg.de
bCenter for Development Research, University of Bonn, Walter-Flex-Str.3, 53113, Bonn, Germany Tel: +49-(0)228-731847 shaffner@uni-bonn.de

Abstract

Since the beginning of the 1990s, comprehensive reforms of the Ghanaian water sector were initiated by the Bretton Woods Institutions. The Government of Ghana was obliged to restructure the sector by establishing regulatory bodies, opening the sector to private sector participation and separating responsibilities for urban water supply from rural water supply. The parastatal Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL) was created to be solely in charge of urban water supply. In spite of external assistance, GWCL continued to suffer from massive financial, managerial and technical problems. The gap between supply and demand increased while demand for potable water in the cities was on the rise and the supply systems were degenerating.

In order to introduce greater efficiency, two options for public–private partnerships (PPP) were developed and contested, over a period of 10 years. At first private companies were invited to take over the GWCL by a lease contract. Numerous factors, among them a massive anti-privatisation campaign and global economic trends unfavourable to private investment, particularly in the water sector, caused a comprehensive revision of the policy and the modification of the PPP programme from lease to short-term management contract with an ensuing affermage concession in 2004. This process was to be supported by external donor agencies substantially upgrading the water supply infrastructure. However, it seemed doubtful if the recent policy would lead to a sustainable system of urban water supply and substantial improvements in the supply situation of the poor. Patronage relations were not sufficiently addressed and alternative PPP options based on local potential had not been considered. The case of Ghana raises issues of imposed PPP policies that are not based on adequate information about local, national and international framework conditions.

Toward effective governance of water services in Kenya

Water Policy Vol 9 No 5 pp 529–543 © IWA Publishing 2007 doi:10.2166/wp.2007.025

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O. A. K'Akumu

University of Westminster, 35 Marylebone Road, London, NW1 5LS, UK owiti.kakumu@yahoo.com

Abstract

Effective governance is regarded as essential for national water management frameworks. Many countries are therefore striving to institute effective governance in their water sector. Kenya is one country that has instituted such governance framework in the recent past. This article evaluates Kenya's water governance framework in the area of water services provision in line with the conventional principles of effective governance. The outcome of this evaluation is that the framework has strived to achieve a structure for effective governance but falls slightly short of it. Recommendations are therefore made to help fill the gap.

The role of research in informing the governance process of the use of ecosystem resources

Water Policy Vol 9 No S2 pp 169–189 © IWA Publishing 2007 doi:10.2166/wp.2007.136

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S. A. Mitchella and C. M. Breenb

aCorresponding author. Water Research Commission, Pretoria, Private Bag X03, GEZINA, 0031, South Africa. E-mail: stevem@wrc.org.za
bCentre for Environment, Agriculture and Development, University of KwaZulu Natal, Pietermaritzburg, Scottville 3209, South Africa

Abstract

We argue that cooperative governance is a cornerstone of successful management of the use of ecosystems. Even where good institutions exist, the challenge is to establish a process of “collective action” that enables society to work through conflicting goals and values in a process of structured co-learning as they relate to the use of natural resources. Research enables informed collective action and is therefore central to informed governance of the use of ecosystems. In this paper we establish a framework for evaluating the role of research in informing the governance process. Selected case studies are used to assess how research has informed governance, their findings are discussed and lessons are drawn from these.

The role of science in improving government accountability to society

Water Policy Vol 9 No S2 pp 113–125 © IWA Publishing 2007 doi:10.2166/wp.2007.135

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L. E. Marina, E. Sanchez Ramireza and V. Martinezb

aGeophysics Institute, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Cd. Universitaria, Mexico City, CP 04510, Mexico . Corresponding author. E-mail: lmarin@geofisica.unam.mx
bEstudios Humanísticos and Departamento de Comunicación y Periodismo, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Campus Cd., de México, D.F., México, C.P. 14380, Mexico

Abstract

The water governance elements for Mexico are presented, using the trialogue model. Three examples of water governance for Aguascalientes, Guerrero and the Yucatan are given. In all three cases, there is a strong presence of the federal government. In two cases, where there is a stronger science or society element, there is improved water governance. Activities of the Water Network of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, that are enhancing the science–society, and science–government interfaces are presented. This paper shows how a group of scientists are trying to improve the water governance in Mexico through the development of stronger interfaces between science and society so that, eventually, a better informed society may hold its policy-makers accountable.

Challenges for the relationship between science and society: developing capacity for ecosystem governance in an emerging democracy

Water Policy Vol 9 No S2 pp 99–111 © IWA Publishing 2007 doi:10.2166/wp.2007.138

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E. van Wyka, C. M. Breenb, T. Sherwillc and D. Magadlelad

aCorresponding author. CSIR, Natural Resources and the Environment, PO Box 395, Pretoria, 0001South Africa E-mail: evwyk@csir.co.za
bCentre for Environment, Agriculture and Development, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, Private Bag X01, Scottsville, 3209, South Africa
cCentre for Water in the Environment, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, Wits, 2050, South Africa
dApplied Development Research Unit of the Development Bank of Southern Africa, Halfway House, Midrand, 1685, South Africa

Abstract

This paper considers the challenges for the emergence of science/society partnerships in a young democracy in the context of access to, and use of, natural resources. As resource issues and related decision-making gain in complexity and urgency, science is increasingly expected to develop solutions in partnership with the public. Challenges to these partnerships are discussed and supported by observations from a South African case example in water resources management. Within the current governance system for natural resources, there are both an expectation and an opportunity to promote democracy via the civic science process. Key to achieving this is the process of collaborative knowledge generation in which science and the public are knowledge partners. The opportunity is supported by various factors: the resource “supply and demand” dialogue around access to, and use of, resources reinforces democratic processes through the explicit recognition of diverse knowledge systems; the research process makes provision for rigour in the co-creation of knowledge; and the overall expectation of democratic relationships in society creates a milieu favourable for promoting democracy through science. Within the context of a developing country, challenges include low levels of social capital such as trust, empowerment and connectedness. The case study also indicates that there are significant delays in attempts to address differentials in empowerment and trust in the science/society partnership, and that this is a significant barrier for the ability of civic science to be an effective vehicle for deepening democracy. In addition, the civic science endeavour is currently only weakly supported by policy. Unless the imperative for civic science to support democratic governance is institutionalised through policy and strategy, it is unlikely that there will be sufficient human and financial investment in civic science as a means to promote democratic governance. This is especially true for developing countries, whose policies and strategies should support the use of civic science as a means of bridging inequities and meeting urgent development goals together with more medium- and long-term imperatives through the co-creation of knowledge.

Challenges to groundwater governance: a case study of groundwater governance in Cape Town, South Africa

Water Policy Vol 9 No S2 pp 127–148 © IWA Publishing 2007 doi:10.2166/wp.2007.129

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C. Colvin and I. Saayman

CSIR, Groundwater Research Group, PO Box 320, CSIR, Stellenbosch, 7599, South Africa E-mail: isaayman@csir.co.za

Abstract

This paper examines the trialogue model for governance of groundwater in Cape Town, a developing urban environment. Government processes such as legislation and level of implementation are examined. Social processes were assessed in a household survey. These included common practice in using groundwater, motivating factors or drivers, understanding of the resource and trust in government structures. A review of the scientific understanding of groundwater resources in the city is given. Government in South Africa's fledgling democracy is in a state of transformation, with responsible institutions focused on their internal organisation and less on their ability to integrate with each other and positively impact resources and society. The social views of groundwater lag behind the formal policy of a public resource, and are tied more closely to land ownership. Science has informed groundwater development in the past, but explicit uncertainty in predictions and lack of an engineering approach has limited the use of groundwater for bulk supply. Private use, however, is widespread in the middle and high income areas and increasing as water tariffs have been increased to improve water demand management (WDM). Society's impacts on groundwater currently result from indirect drivers such as WDM. The trialogue model is a useful framework within which social drivers and impacts can be mapped. However, this occurs within the broader context of society supported by natural resources and we propose a model which includes the resource base and its feedback, and governance elements of formal government, the market and the knowledge base (including science).

The politics of bulk water pricing in Brazil: lessons from the Paraíba do Sul basin

Water Policy Vol 9 No 1 pp 87–104 © IWA Publishing 2007 doi:10.2166/wp.2006.001

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Rosa Maria Formiga-Johnssona, Lori Kumlerb and Maria Carmen Lemosc

aUniversidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, , Departamento de Engenharia Sanitária e do Meio Ambiente, , Rua São Francisco Xavier, 524, MaracanãCEP 20555-013, Rio de Janeiro, RJ Brazil.
bCorresponding author. 3900 W. Liberty Rd.Ann Arbor, MI 48103, USA Fax: (734) 936-2195lkumler@umich.edu
cUniversity of Michigan, , School of Natural Resources and Environment, , 440 Church StreetAnn Arbor, MI 48109-1041, USA

Abstract

This article examines the implementation of a bulk water pricing system in the Paraíba do Sul River Basin (PSRB) in southeast Brazil. It argues that four primary factors explain the successful negotiations for water prices in the basin. First, the negotiation process itself was inclusive and open rather than being imposed from the top down. A combination of market factors and state control (in the form of direct involvement of a federal agency) created a necessary balance in setting prices as it simultaneously allowed for powerful industrial sectors to negotiate favorable terms and for state and societal actors to offset the dominance of certain users over the negotiation process. Second, participants successfully demanded that the collected funds be reinvested in the basin rather than absorbed and spent elsewhere by the federal government. Third, a worldwide paradigm shift for water management, including the notions of water as an economic good, decentralization, societal participation and sustainability shaped the actions of key groups within the basin. Fourth, the level of technical capacity in the basin which reached back several decades provided the necessary foundation and support for the process to move forward. Committee members largely agreed on the primary problems facing the basin and on the necessity of implementing a bulk water pricing scheme in order to rectify them.

Water governance: trends and needs for new capacity development

Water Policy Vol 9 No S2 pp 19–30 © IWA Publishing 2007 doi:10.2166/wp.2007.137

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Håkan Tropp

Stockholm International Water Institute, Drottninggatan 33, SE-111 51, Stockholm, Sweden E-mail: hakan.tropp@siwi.org

Abstract

New forms of governance focusing on process-oriented societal co-steering through, for example, formal and informal networks, partnerships and dialogue, have emerged within the water sector. The governance transformation is intrinsically linked to the increasing focus on the complexity of water management and the multifunctional character of water and the search for alternative forms of organisation. The emergence of concepts like integrated water resources management and river basin management should be seen in the light of the governance transformation. The full potential of the governance transformation for improved management of water resources and services is yet to be fully realised. Water decision-makers and managers are currently not prepared to fully realise the development potentials of new forms of governance, such as facilitating inclusive decision-making processes, coordination and negotiated outcomes. There is thus a need for additional sociocratic knowledge and capacity development that, for example, puts the emphasis on the management of people and processes, diversity of organisation and knowledge sharing. As a part of this it is paramount to treat politics as a part of the problem as well as of the solution and to broaden water issues outside the water sector itself.

Key drivers in environmental legislation towards good governance

Water Policy Vol 9 No S2 pp 31–50 © IWA Publishing 2007 doi:10.2166/wp.2007.128

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C. E. Barnard

PO Box 35453, Menlo Park, 0102, Pretoria, South Africa E-mail: duard@envirolaw.co.za

Abstract

The trialogue model is investigated with reference to the process that should be generated by Government, Science and Society and the results that should be achieved in the interaction at the interfaces between the stakeholders. What should and what has been achieved are analysed and contrasted.

The procedural part of the process is mainly the process of integrated environmental management, supported by a public participation process. The principles against which developments should be measured include sustainable development, the maximisation of benefits and evaluating land development by considering its merits. The structure that brings Society to the trialogue and a co-operative governance structure that brings Government to the trialogue are valuable key drivers that prepare the foundation for good environmental governance. The conclusion reached is that the process that has been developed recently is good. The legal principles that underpin the procedures are both key drivers for the process and valuable touchstones against which the environmental governance products of the trialogue can be legally verified.

The conclusion reached is that, through the absence of integration, the process is not used to its best advantage. The valuable contribution that the new Process can make, and the risk of environmental degradation if it is not used, are such that there is great merit in trying to achieve its implementation The weaknesses are analysed and recommendations are made that aim to facilitate the integration of the use of available environmental governance process.

Economic valuation of environmental goods and services in the context of good ecosystem governance

Water Policy Vol 9 No S2 pp 51–67 © IWA Publishing 2007 doi:10.2166/wp.2007.134

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N. A. King

MINTEK, Private BagX3015, Randburg, 2125, South Africa 1 E-mail: nicolak@mintek.co.za

Abstract

A central concern of governments, societies and aid institutions is to support the development process in order to provide stability and raise the welfare of underdeveloped countries. Historically, development models have focused on capital injections for infrastructure, education and health in order to promote financial and social returns to society. Today, development concerns incorporate the paradigm of “sustainable development” and hence a new focus on the efficient and sustainable use of natural resources. Many of these resources are public goods and are difficult to capture in traditional economic models of development. Typically, they have been undervalued and overused. As natural resources become scarcer, governments, society and the private sector need to find interrelated solutions in order to manage them sustainably. Central to the effective management of these environmental goods and services is the role of good governance, defined here as an interplay between society, science and government. This paper considers the role of economics and value in the governance trialogue; it is based on the economic perspective and not that of political science. It focuses primarily on the role of economic valuation as a tool for addressing the inefficient use of environmental goods and services, and by doing so incorporates their “true” value in the decision-making process around environmental management, leading to good governance.

The role of governance in countering corruption: an African case study

Water Policy Vol 9 No S2 pp 69–81 © IWA Publishing 2007 doi:10.2166/wp.2007.131

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A. Earle

African Centre for Water Research, Suite 17, Private Bag X1, Vlaeberg 8018, Cape Town, South Africa. E-mail: antonearle@acwr.co.za

Abstract

The Trialogue model of governance includes relationships between three main actor clusters—government, science and society—within which the quality of the relationships between the three actor-clusters “determines the extent to which government can generate the incentives needed to develop society by allowing science to inform the decision-making process”. Corruption, in the form of the bribery of a public official, diminishes the quality of the relationship between the society cluster, usually in the form of private-sector business interests, and government. The drop in quality in this relationship has a negative impact on the quality of the government—science interface, due to increased project costs, in turn dropping the quality of the science—society interface, due to a drop in quality or increase in the price of services. Far from being purely a morally detestable action, corruption has a direct impact on the level of development of both a society and a country, undermining efforts to promote growth, equity and access to services. The asymmetries in power between some of the large corporations and developing countries has led to a situation where corruption is taken as the norm and it is assumed that there is very little that can be done about it. The case study of how Lesotho confronted corruption on the Lesotho Highlands Water Project, leading to the prosecution of the Chief Executive of the Lesotho Highlands Development Authority as well as three multinational corporations, provides an example of what can be done by a developing country to promote good governance through tackling corruption. This paper investigates the impact of corruption, specifically on large-scale water infrastructure development projects, and what measures can be taken to combat it.

Community-based natural resource management: governing the commons

Water Policy Vol 9 No S2 pp 83–97 © IWA Publishing 2007 doi:10.2166/wp.2007.132

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C. Fabriciusa and S. Collinsb

aCorresponding author. Department of Environmental Science, Rhodes University, PO Box 94, 6140, Grahamstown, South Africa . Current address: Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Saasveld Campus, 6530 George, South Africa E-mail: christo.fabricius@nmmu.ac.za
bGTZ Transform, PO Box 13732, Hatfield, 0028, Pretoria South Africa

Abstract

Community-based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) focuses on the collective management of ecosystems to promote human well-being and aims to devolve authority for ecosystem management to the local (community) level. CBNRM therefore requires strong investments in capacity development of local institutions and governance structures. CBNRM has come under strong criticism for its failures to deliver real benefits to communities. In this paper we explore the reasons for the frequent failure of CBNRM. We postulate that good governance buffers CBNRM against unexpected change, notably conflicts, especially in the early stages when income generation, infrastructure development and capacity development have not yet taken place. We assess the key characteristics of CBNRM governance systems that could perform this buffering function, using case study examples from Macubeni, Nqabara, Makuleke and Richtersveld to support our propositions. In our case studies, 11 strategies have been used to increase the incidence of success of CBNRM: understand and describe the social-ecological system; establish and communicate a clear vision; build on local organizations; plan ahead; create rules for resource use and enforce them; communicate the vision, plan and rules; develop management capacity; finance the initial stages of the initiative; work within available legal frameworks; monitor and learn all the time; and create lasting incentives. Despite these strategies there are, however, a number of obstinate implementation challenges, related to governance shortcomings and external factors which management cannot control. We therefore propose seven additional strategies to promote good governance in CBNRM:

1. Develop knowledge networks that draw on the experience and wisdom of a wide range of key individuals.

2. Establish formalised decision-making structures (e.g. multi-level project steering committees) with clear constitutions and codes of conduct.

3. Clearly define and legitimise conflict resolution procedures.

4. Ensure acceptance of the governance structure by community members.

5. Obtain formal commitment to well-defined roles and responsibilities by key individuals.

6. Establish tangible incentives to key individuals for meeting their commitments.

7. Develop the capacity for facilitation to promote communication.

Local communities, government and scientists have important roles to play in maintaining these knowledge and governance networks through adaptive co-management.

Keywords: Adaptive co-management; Case studies; Communal areas; Community-based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM); Ecosystems and human well-being; Governance; Knowledge networks; South Africa

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